STONE FRUIT - PEST
SCALE INSECTS
Name of pest: Parthenolecanium corni - European fruit lecanium
Sphaerolecanium prunastri - Plum scale
Diaspidiouts perniciosus - San Jose scale
Pseudaulacaspis pentagona - White peach scale
Pulvinaria betulae- Cottony maple scale; New pest!
38. Figure: Pulvinaria betulae
39. Figure: Scale symptoms
While feeding, scale insects produce honeydew, which in turn favours the growth of sooty mould, which turns leaves dark grey or black. Necrotic parts on the bark and branches indicate the presence of the white peach scale. Mass infestations by the plum scale weaken the trees, interfere with flowering, and kill twigs and branches. Their honeydew production is very intense.
40. Figure Symptoms of scales
APHIDS
Name of pest:
- Myzus cerasi – Cherry aphid
- Myzus persicae - Green peach aphid
- Hyalopterus pruni - Mealy plum aphid
- Brachycaudus helichrysi - Leaf curl plum aphid
- Brachycaudus schwartzi - Peach curl aphid
- Myzus varians - Peach-clematis aphid
- Hyalopterus amygdali - Mealy peach aphid
- Myzus mumecola – Apricot aphid
- Myzus cerasi spp-prunarium is considered a sub-species of Myzus cerasi.
Host range: Aphids usually feed on a few specific plant species. They also need a host plant to reproduce. Host plants: peach, plum, Mahaleb cherry, sour cherry and other plum species (P. spinosa, P. tribona).
41. Figure: Symptoms of aphids
42. Figure M. mumecola
Symptoms: Damage symptoms are quite similar. Aphid feeding on the leaves results in leaf twisting, deformation and bending. Leaves turn yellow, wilt and then drop. Nutrient loss increases and as a result the quality and quantity of the crop deteriorates. The honeydew produced by aphids favours the growth of sooty mould.
Life cycle: From overwintering eggs, only females hatch in early April. They are found in the flowers together with their parthenogenetic offspring. By early June, 2-3 generations will have developed. The last generation is composed of winged, viviparous females that reproduce by asexually. In most species, winged individuals colonise grasses (e.g. Veronica beccabunga, Galium aparine, Veronica longifolia, etc.) in the summer. At the end of summer, females very similar to the first generation, as well as males, develop and return to the host plant (peach, plum, cherry, sour cherry) where they mate and fertilised females lay overwintering eggs by the buds. The apricot aphid is about 2-2.5 mm long and pale green. It is probably the eggs that overwinter on apricot trees, as the first females are found on the trees very early on, at budburst. Later generations colonize the tips of shoots. They leave the young shoots of apricot in mid-September.
Control: There is a broad range of available agrotechnical control methods. The proper shaping of the crown, balanced nutrient supply, regular destruction of weeds and removal of infested leaves, shoot tips and branches create unfavourable conditions for colonies. For rational chemical control, it is essential to know the number of eggs, the time of emergence of the first females and the speed of reproduction.
For organic control orange oil, Melius oil and Phytocondi can be applied.
STONE FRUIT MITE
Casual organism: Aculus fockeui
Host range: peach, cherry, sour cherry, plum, almond.
Occurrence and importance:
Dry weather favours the increase of mite populations in late summer and autumn. In recent years, both aphids and mites have had to be actively controlled in stone fruit orchards. Their spreading of viruses increases their economic importance.
43. Figure: Aculus fockeui
BARK MOTH / BARK TORTRIX
Host range: apricot, cherry, sour cherry, almond, plum, peach, whitebeam. It rarely occurs on apple and pear.
Occurrence and importance: The cherry bark tortrix is widespread throughout Europe. It damages both young and mature trees. It is most often found in almond, but significant damage has also been reported from cherry and apricot. The cherry bark tortrix reproduces in the trunks and lower parts of the branches. Huge populations may cause the partial or complete dieback of trees.
45. Figure: Damages by Enarmonia formosana
44. Figure Enarmonia formosana
PLUM FRUIT MOTH
Name of pest: Cydia funebrana
46. Figure Distribution of Cydia funebrana
47. Figure: Cydia funebrana adult
Source: https://www.growveg.co.uk/pests/uk-and-europe/codling-moth/
Life cycle: In Hungary, 3 generations develop a year[1]. The moth overwinters as a fully grown larvae in a densely woven cocoon in cracks in the bark, in the root collar and rarely in the soil. The overwintering generation pupate in the cocoon in March and April. The flight season is continuous from late April to mid-June. The second generation emerges a little later, from June. Flight seasons often overlap. The caterpillars of the third generation reach full maturity in early September. The last instar is 10-12 mm long. The back is pinkish, the ventral side is lighter. The adult is 5 mm long, with a wingspan of 12-15 mm. Wings have a brownish grey pattern on a dark grey background. Eggs are spherical and 1 mm in diameter. The puparium is 5 mm long, brown.
PEACH TWIG BORER
Name of pest: Anarsia lineatella
48. Figure Distribution of Anarsia lineatella
Source: EPPO Database
49. Figure: Anarsia lineatella, adult
50. Figure: Symptoms of Anarsia lineatella
Symptoms: Young caterpillars overwinter. Larvae damage trees in early spring (early to mid-April) by feeding on buds and shoots before they pupate. Infested shoots wither. The caterpillars of the summer generation penetrate the fruit and chew their way to the ovary. The ripening process of the immature fruit is accelerated. The fruit is contaminated by gum, faeces and chewing residues. Infected fruit drop or rot due to secondary pathogens.
51. Figure: Larvae of Anarsia lineatella
ORIENTAL FRUIT MOTH
Name of pest: Cydia molesta
52. Figure Distribution of Cydia molesta
54. Figure Symptoms of Cydia molesta
55. Figure Development of fruit moth
EUROPEAN CHERRY FRUIT FLY
Name of pest: Rhagoletis cerasi
56. Figure Distribution of Rhagoletis cerasi
57. Figure Rhagoletis cerasi adult
58. Figure Rhagoletis cerasi larvae
Host range: The most important hosts are cherry and sour cherry, but it may also damage wild cherry, mahaleb cherry, Lonicera tatarica and Lonicera xylosteum.
Occurrence and importance: The pest is widespread throughout Europe. It is a common pest of sour cherry and cherry. The insect has one generation. It is a member of the fruit fly family and can cause enormous damage in orchards where microclimatic conditions are favourable and the area is not properly managed. In such cases, the damage can be as high as 50-100%.
59. Figure Really expensive organic control against Rhagoletis cerasi
Source: B. Ö. Çatal, M. Ulusoy 2018.
EASTERN CHERRY FRUIT FLY
Name of pest: Rhagoletis cingulate
60. Figure Distribution of Rhagoletis cingulata
61. Figure: Rhagoletis cingulata adult
MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY
Name of pest: Ceratitis capitata
62. Figure Distribution of Ceratitis capitata
63. Figure Ceratitis capitata adult
SPOTTED WING DROSOPHILA
Name of pest: Drosophila suzukii
64. Figure Distribution of Drosophila suzukii
65. Figure: Drosophila suzukii
66. Figure: Drosophila suzukii
CITRUS FLATID PLANTHOPPER
Name of pest: Metcalfa pruinosa
67. Figure: Distribution of Metcalfa pruinosa
68. Figure: Metcalfa pruinosa white waxy fluff
69. Figure Metcalfa pruinosa adult
70. Figure Metcalfa pruinosa white waxy fluff
BROWN MARMORATED STINK BUG
Name of pest: Halyomorpha halys
71. Figure Distribution of Halyomorpha halys
72. Figure: Adult Halyomorpha halys
73. Figure: Halyomorpha halys adult
74. Figure Halyomorpha halys
75. Figure Symptoms of Halyomorpha halys
76. Figure Symptoms of Halyomorpha halys
77. Figure Organic control against Halyomorpha halys with Trissolcus basalis
78. Figure Organic control against Halyomorpha halys with Trissolcus basalis
POTATO VIRUS Y
Pathogen: Potato virus Y (PVY)
Host range: It includes approximately 400 species from 72 genera.
Importance: One of the economically most destructive viruses, responsible for severe losses in pepper.
Symptoms: In pepper, PVY typically causes mosaic mottling, the wrinkling of the apical leaf and the appearance of dark green bands and stripes along the veins (Smith et al., 1992).
Veins turn pale, while dark green bands are formed along them. Depending on the virus strain and the genotype of the infected cultivar, leaf curl, growth inhibition, necrosis and rapid plant death may also be observed.
The fruit may develop necrotic spots and mosaic mottling or get deformed. Fruit symptoms may not always appear, with the signs of the disease limited to the bands along the veins and the deformation of leaves.
4. Figure Potato Virus Y (PVY)
Stunted growth, mosaic mottling, distorted leaves and fruits (the latter with wrinkles and chlorotic or necrotic spots), reduced fruit size and the abortion of flowers have also been reported.
5. Figure Potato Virus Y (PVY)
Transmission & Epidemiology: PVY is transmitted in a non-persistent manner, by at least 25 aphid species. Its most efficient vector is Myzus persicae (the green peach aphid), which colonises peppers. As Myzus persicae is able to retain the virus for more than 6 days.
Control:
- Remove/ destroy potato crops after the final harvest in order to minimise PYV spread to new crops.
- Destroy volunteer plants before planting to reduce PYV inoculum and aphid populations
- PYV-resistant varieties
Throughout insect vectors:
- protect hotbeds with nets to prevent early infection
- use coloured sticky traps to monitor vector populations
- control of the vector population by chemical, biological and/or integrated means
- oils
CUCUMBER MOSAIC VIRUS
Pathogen: Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)
Host range: CMV has a very wide host range that includes more than 1000 plant species
Distribution: worldwide
6. Figure Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)
Importance: CMV causes severe damage during flowering and in the yield. Its impact depends on the geographical area. Although it is distributed worldwide, the most significant losses are experienced under warm climates.
Symptoms: Young leaves often display a light-yellowish green mosaic mottling, which may develop into diffuse chlorotic lesions. Leaves get distorted, with curled main veins. On old leaves, chlorotic and/or necrotic concentric rings may appear, as well as irregular spots.
7. Figure Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)
Fruit symptoms include reduced size, dark green spots, irregular ripening and/or sunken lesions with necrotic centres. The extent and severity of CMV symptoms is significantly affected by the age of the plant at the time of infection. When infected young, plants typically develop severe symptoms, including mosaic mottling, small and deformed leaves and reduced fruit size. In some cases, the disease may destroy the entire crop.
8. Figure Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV)
Transmission & Epidemiology: CMV is transmitted in a non-persistent manner by more than 86 aphid species. Myzus persicae (the green peach aphid) and Aphis gossypii (the cotton aphid) are two of the most efficient vectors.
CMV may also be transmitted by seeds.
Control:
Use virus-free propagative material (seeds, etc.)
Control of weed reservoir hosts
- eliminate weeds in the vicinity of the crop
- remove and destroy infected plants.
Chemical control of aphids
- protect hotbeds with nets to prevent early infection
- use coloured sticky traps to monitor the vector
- control of the vector population: chemical, biological and/or integrated control
Resistance breeding
The most effective methods of control are growing resistant varieties.
ALFALFA MOSAIC VIRUS
Pathogen: Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV)
Host range: AMV infects a wide range of hosts, with about 600 species in 70 families being susceptible. Occasionally it may infect woody species.
Distribution:
9. Figure Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV)
Importance: Worldwide occurrence, commonly it does not cause economically significant damage, but in some cases, it may significantly reduce yields.
Symptoms: The bright yellow mosaic mottling on young leaves and their increasingly severe distortion are easily confused with the symptoms of other viruses.
On fully developed leaves, characteristic AMV symptoms may be observed including white blotches arranged in a mosaic pattern. In the summer, these symptoms are less important.
Fruits may be distorted and reduced in size and develop necrotic spots. These symptoms are particularly pronounced in the late cultivars.
10. Figure Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV)
Transmission & Epidemiology: AMV is transmitted in a non-persistent manner by aphids such as Myzus persicae Sulz. It may also be transmitted mechanically or by Cuscuta species in the field.
Control:
Reduce viral inoculum levels:
- eliminate weeds in the vicinity of the crop
- remove and destroy infected plants.
Vector control to minimise transmission:
- protect hotbeds with nets to prevent early infection
- use of coloured sticky traps to monitor the vector
- control of the vector population: chemical, biological and/or integrated control
Produce virus-free seeds (e.g., seed treatment)
Isolation from other hosts (pepper, tobacco, peas etc.)
CAPSICUM CHLOROSIS VIRUS
Pathogen: Capsicum Chlorosis virus (CaCV). It is a tospovirus (prototype TSWV), a member of the genus Orthotospovirus (family Tospoviridae) only identified on the island of Crete in EU (Greece) (EFSA Panel on Plant Health (PLH), et al. 2022).
Host range: CaCV infects plant species in the family Solanaceae (i.e. pepper, tomato) and ornamental plants.
Importance: Trade of plants (excluding seeds), ornamental plants, cut flowers, fruits and movement of soil and machinery contribute to further spread of the virus and/or viruliferous thrips to larger distances.
Symptoms: CaCV can induce severe symptoms on its hosts, mainly on leaves and fruits. Main symptoms are: frequently consisting of chlorosis, mottle. The young leaves show chlorosis, curling and deformation, whereas chlorosis, ringspot and line patterns develop on old leaves.
11Figure: Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV)
Transmission & Epidemiology: CaCV is transmitted in a persistent manner by thrips (similarly to TSWV).
Control:
Preventive measures should be applied to hinder thrips-transmission (similarly to TSWV).
TOMATO MOSAIC VIRUS
Pathogen: Tomato mosaic virus (ToMV). It is an important member of the genus Tobamovirus.
Host range: The host range of ToMV is very wide (similarly to TMV).
Importance: ToMV has been reported from countries where tobacco, tomatoes or peppers are grown. ToMV is of greater economic importance than TMV and mostly damages greenhouse crops.
Symptom: Its most typical symptoms include mosaic mottling, deformed leaves, necrotic lesions and stunted growth.
The symptoms of ToMV are similar to those of TMV, but more intense, including dark greyish-brown stripes on the stems and branches, followed by the necrosis of the foliage and defoliation.
Transmission & Epidemiology: ToMV (similarly to TMV) is transmitted mechanically, by contact between healthy and infected plants or contaminated objects, similar to the transmission of TMV.
It is also transmitted by seeds in the case of certain members of the family Solanaceae.
It stays infective in plant debris and on contaminated objects for a very long time (persistent).
It may also be transmitted by Cuscuta species.
Control:
Preventive measures should be applied to hinder transmission.
- use healthy seeds
- disinfect tools
- isolate crops, remove and destroy infected plants
- use ToMV-resistant varieties
CANDIDATUS PHYTOPLASMA SOLANI (PEPPER STOLBUR)
Pathogen: Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (Stolbur phytoplasma)
Host range: Stolbur is able to infect practically any solanaceous plant and has also been found in sugar beet and field bindweed.
Distribution:
12 Figure Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (Stolbur phytoplasma)
Importance: Stolbur regularly damage crops in droughty years in southern, eastern and central Europe. There is no chemical method available to control it.
Symptoms: The most important symptoms are the reddish discolouration of green parts, upward rolling of leaves, yellowing and defoliation. Flowers are malformed, have green petals and may develop into leaves. The disease urges the development of numerous shoots while stunting growth. The plant does not produce fruit or fruits are deformed.
13 Figure Candidatus Phytoplasma solani (Stolbur phytoplasma)
Transmission & Epidemiology: Stolbur overwinters on perennial weeds, especially in the rhizomes of the field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis). Its vector is the cicada Hyalesthes obsoletus (sometimes other cicada species, too). The insects pick up the disease when sucking on infected plants.
Stolbur is transmitted in a persistent manner. Infected cicadas, flying from plant-to-plant actively spread the disease during the summer. The incubation period of stolbur is long, so usually it is first detected in pepper fields in the late summer. Its vector is polyphagous and thus infects further bindweed specimens, promoting the persistence of the pathogen.
Control:
Proper weed control is of paramount importance, not only on the field itself, but also in its surroundings. Take special care to eliminate field bindweed.
There is no stolbur resistant cultivar. Dealers and distributors may say otherwise, but this is misleading.
Monitor the insects in the crop. When cicadas are spotted (they are difficult to find unless they jump or fly right in front of your eyes), precautions should be taken.
Listo of Viruses:
- PRUNUS NECROTIC RING SPOT VIRUS
- PLUM POX
- CROWN GALL
- FIRE BLIGHT IN APRICOT
- PLUM BACTERIAL CANKER
- BACTERIAL BLIGHT
- PEACH LEAF CURL
- PEACH POWDERY MILDEW
- INFECTIOUS WHITHERING
- BLOSSOM BLIGHT
- SCALE INSECTS
- APHIDS
- STONE FRUIT MITE
- BARK MOTH / BARK TORTRIX
- PLUM FRUIT MOTH
- PEACH TWIG BORER
- ORIENTAL FRUIT MOTH
- EUROPEAN CHERRY FRUIT FLY
- EASTERN CHERRY FRUIT FLY
- MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY
- SPOTTED WING DROSOPHILA
- CITRUS FLATID PLANTHOPPER
- BROWN MARMORATED STINK BUG